Abstract：
Slavery existed in the Philippines long before the first Spanish expedition arrived. During the Spanish colonial rule, most of the royal family members and the religious orders were against slavery. However, owing to shortage of labor, slavery remained in the Philippines and most of the slaves in Manila came with military operations and trade. From the end of the 16th century to the 1640s, the Spanish expeditions captured and enslaved people in Maguindanao, Sulu, Terenate, Lutao, Calamianes and Batanes. These slaves were sold to foreign lands by Chinese and Portuguese traders. Muslim merchants and the Spanish in Manila also participated in the slave trade, though with the Portuguese playing the most important role. On the other hand, foreign slaves came mainly from Africa and Asia. Although many of them were converted to Catholicism, there seemed to be no Ladinos in the 17th-century Filipino society. Many kaffir/cafre slaves were sent to northern Taiwan, some laboring in the galleys during the Spanish colonization era and some serving in the homes of the officials and merchants of northern Taiwan. Those who could not adapt to the weather tried to escape. There was even a Bengali slave, who used to be a surgeon, sent to northern Taiwan. After the defeat of the Spanish by the Dutch, many Cagayanos and Pampangos became Dutch slaves. In the Philippines, most of the slave owners were Spanish military and government officials, religious groups, Portuguese, Sangleys and the Filipino upper class. Some slaves were on loan, given away, resold by their owners or transferred to their guarantors. To buy a slave, it was necessary to pay both the price and the freight fare. In the early 17th century, a buyer paid 12 pesos for the freight of a slave; this was later lowered to 10 pesos. The freight for a child slave cost only 8 pesos. If the traders fed them, the buyers would have to pay more. Generally, a slave was worth 50 pesos in the 17th-century Philippines and child slaves were cheaper. However, between 1648 and 1649, the prices of the slave market strongly fluctuated. Buyers who paid the highest prices were the Sangleys. The slaves were an important workforce, serving in the galleys, royal artillery, house of the owners, or the fields. Slaves who were mistreated could file a law suit against their owners and hire lawyers to represent them. Yet, winning cases were few. There were also owners who treated their slaves well. At the end of the 17th century, slaves started to be emancipated in the Philippines and slavery was eventually abolished.

Keywords：Spanish Philippines, Northern Taiwan, Slaves, Trade, Portuguese, 17th Century Spanish Sources

Abstract：
Migrants from Japan who moved to Taiwan during early Japanese colonization or came to seek opportunities under more stable colonial rule might have offspring born or grown up in Taiwan. Those who remained until Japan surrendered in 1945, ending World War II (WWII), would have three to four decades of experiences in Taiwan. This study traces the history of the Ikenoue Kuwae family as an example. Ikenoue Kuwae (1883-1946) moved to Taiwan in 1912 and held a position in the Taiwan Governor General Monopoly Bureau. After resigning in 1920, he worked at Taisei Fire and Marine Insurance Company. In 1940, he joined the Kaiyokogyo Company. This study discusses the changes in his job description from a public officer to a private company employee, with focus on his personal connections and financial strength. Among the four sons and two daughters of the second-generation Ikenoue family, five were born in Taiwan. They all received higher education, which played a key role in their future development. By detailing the academic achievements of the second-generation Ikenoue family, this study enriches the research on Taiwan’s education history. Furthermore, the history of the Ikenoue family during the war and after their return to Japan to rebuild their lives after WWII can enhance our understanding of the relationship between Taiwan and Japan during and after WWII.

Keywords：Ikenoue kuwae, Taiwan Governor General Monopoly Bureau, Taisei Fire and Marine Insurance Company, Taihoku Higher School

Abstract：
Ninomiya Sontoku (Kinjiro) was one of figures that most impressed people who had received Japanese education before the Second World War. One reason is that Ninomiya Kinjiro was a frequent caller in the textbooks of moral, and the other is that his bronze statues on campus left a strong impression on those people. Since the mid-1920s, to promote their products, local businessmen had started manufacturing the statue of teenaged Ninomiya Kinjiro who carried firewood while studying, which was widely popular among elementary schools. Taiwan’s schools did not start putting up the statue of Ninomiya Kinjiro until after 1935 to encourage young students to study diligently and work hard without complaint because they were influenced by the movements of local education and regional revitalization. In 1940, to commemorate the 2600th Anniversary of the Japanese Imperial Era, schools across Japan began putting up bronze statues and other facilities, and the number of bronze statues also increased greatly that year. However, as the war situation in Japan intensified, the bronze statues of Ninomiya Kinjiro that had been used to instruct students to cultivate themselves and contribute to their hometowns were used to mobilize people. In the end, these bronze statues were commandeered as war reserves. It has been heard from time to time about the history stories of the past through people’s memories for the bronze statue of Ninomiya Kinjiro. This might be because the values of “studying hard without any complaint” presented by the bronze statue, which had a common ground with the collective behavior of respecting knowledge in the Han Chinese society in Taiwan. Therefore, they still arouse resonance in Taiwan’s society even though it has been three generations. The bronze statue of Ninomiya Kinjiro that has disappeared is in fact a part of Taiwan’s historical memories as it talks about the history of schools in Taiwan over the past 100 years.

Keywords：Ninomiya Sontoku, Ninomiya Kinjiro, Bronze Statue, The 2600th Anniversary, Arai Store

Abstract：
Forest is the most significant landscape of Taiwan, and forestry is surely an important component of Taiwanese history. However, researchers have so far concentrated on the forestry regime in Taiwan under the Japanese colonial rule, and little attention has been paid to unveil how the Forestry Bureau of Taiwan Province took over and reorganized the colonial forestry regime in postwar Taiwan, let alone analyze this episode with concepts in recent scholarship of environmental history, such as governance, assemblage, and the circulation of knowledge. To bridge this gap, this essay focuses on the life and career of the first director of the Forestry Bureau, Huang Weiyan (1904-1988), who received his PhD in forestry from the University of Munich and upon graduation was appointed as Professor in forestry at the Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou. In the 1930s, when Huang studied in Germany, he became familiar with the Naturschutz (natural protection) ideology promoted by the Nazi Party and embraced by German foresters. After returning to China, he proposed the framework of “defense forestry,” which integrated German forestry, Sun Yat-sen’s forestry thought, his experience in the experimental forests of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, and the urgent needs for the reconstruction and revival of postwar China. Huang believed that an ideal forestry regime should be monolithic and centralized. Central forestry institution should serve as the “general headquarters” as in the military system, while lower level forestry institutions were akin to “outposts” on the front. However, in December 1945, when Huang took the responsibility of reorganizing Taiwan’s colonial forestry to set up a new regime under the supervision of the Forestry Bureau, he realized that his “defense forestry” and the “southern forestry” that buttressed Taiwan’s colonial forestry were on the opposite ends of the spectrum. Unlike Huang, colonial foresters in the 1930s had realized that, due to the unique compositions and complexities of Taiwan’s forests, it was impossible and impractical to import the “northern forestry,” which concentrated on temperate forests with relatively simple structures, and relied it as a guiding principle. Thus, they shifted the focus away from German forestry and created a company-oriented, horizontal, and decentralized “southern forestry,” which highlighted the “liquidation” concept of American forestry and the wartime needs of Japan. To reconcile the incommensurability between the two types of forestry, Huang conducted a series of bold experiments, in the hope of grafting his defense forestry upon southern forestry. Even so, in October 1946, when garrison commander Chen Yi approved the institutional structure of the Forestry Bureau, as well as the Bureau’s monopoly of Taiwan’s forest resources, the Bureau remained a cumbersome assemblage difficult to maintain. Those who were unsatisfied with the Bureau’s policies, for example, local governments and Taiwanese forestry managers, were aware of the Bureau’s maintenance problem. They exploited the opportunity, thus foreshadowing the chaos of Taiwanese forestry after the February 28th incident in 1947.

Keywords：Huang Weiyan, Environmental History, Forestry, Forestry Bureau, Takeover