Abstract：
The so-called “Liu-k’iu Hypotheses” relates to the arguments in medieval Chinese classics on the geographical location and whereabout of the state of Liu-k’iu, whether it’s referencing the modern day Okinawa, derived from the narrative developed since Ming and Qing Dynasties, or Taiwan, or both, this is a topic of intense discussion of the past a century and half without a definite conclusion to this day, and an ongoing one in the field of history. It is however, a small topic embodied in the grand scope of history as it doesn’t confine itself within the realm of academia, it also invokes disputes as far as realpolitik is concerned. The classic references of the invasion of Sui Empire in Book of Sui not only filled the historical void left since historical records on Taiwan and Okinawa, in a sense it also affects the sovereignty and territorial claims concerning China, Japan and Taiwan. This unique phenomenon has consequently reflected on the education and the development of historical viewpoints of these nations. Through exploring their origins and dissecting the academic disciplines and fundamental methods involved in forming their respective narratives, as well as discovering the hidden agendas within the subconsciousness, this thesis is a study of the major three hypotheses concerning this issue, the “okinawa hypothesis”, “the Taiwan hypothesis”, and the “hybrid hypothesis”. The argument, from a political point of view, it can be determined imminently. As for academic aspiration, without the evidences of new and unseen materials, it remains unsolved. This thesis does not take sides, conversely it aims to reflect the complexity and intrinsically involved in this historical argument. Due to the unfamiliarity and taboo imbued in the Chinese tradition towards sea and ocean, the studies have been scarce and opaque in the past. If my actual standpoint is to be rendered, I would say that we don’t have to forcibly pinpoint the exact location before Ming Dynasty.

Keywords：Liu-k’iu, Liu-k’iu Hypotheses, Southern Islands, The Surface and Intrinsically of History

Abstract：
Existing research has revealed discrepancies between the legal code and verdicts of local magistrates in Qing Taiwan. By cross-examining the Qing Code, the Tan-Hsin Archives and private documents, with focus on posthumous adoption, this article analyzes the diversity of worship traditions, as well as the roles taken up by the Code and relevant orthodox norms in lawsuits and people’s daily lives. In view of the close relationship of posthumous adoption with continuation of the patrilineal family line, familial property division, and widows’ protection, the Code provided more detailed provisions on the eligibility of heirs, who could posthumously attain an heir and who had the right to name heirs. For example, the Code stipulated that only a male of the same clan could be an heir. Furthermore, on the eligibility of being worshiped, factors such as attaining adulthood, having a chaste widow, or being the only son, shall be considered. The Code also granted widows a certain degree of power in the choice of heir. However, private documents showed that appointed heirs with different surnames were in fact quite common. The language of relevant documents, and the fact that most of those who had posthumous adoption were unmarried and had male siblings, revealed that posthumous adoption not only served the purpose of lineage continuation, it was also a way to arrange for the “posthumous-care” of deceased relatives. It was not uncommon for a widow to bring in a matrilocal husband and bear a son to continue her deceased family line. So was the arrangement of multiple heirs from nuclear families of the deceased’s brothers. Finally, the fact that convents in local societies provided funding for adoptive heirs for those who died in battles against bandits, demonstrated that posthumous adoption was not confined to family affairs, but also involved the duty and entitlement of a member of self-defense groups in frontier societies. With regards to the decision making of heir appointment, while existing studies focus on the rights granted to widows by the Code, detailed analysis of private documents and the Tan-Hsin Archives showed a scarce presence of widows. The brothers and parents of the deceased played the primary roles. It is worth-mentioning that a childless widow could gain more control over the family property by adopting an heir outside of her deceased husband’s clan or, as mentioned earlier, by giving birth to a son to be the deceased husband’s heir. In addition, the female elders in the deceased’s family had considerable influence on posthumous adoption. The Tan-Hsin Archives shows that the official stance did not entirely forbid the unorthodox practice of posthumous adoption. In fact, magistrates selectively adopted three different approaches: (1) condemn and reject, (2) tolerate and turn a blind eye to, and (3) proactively propose unorthodox practices as a solution for both parties. Accordingly, the Code might be cited as a legitimate resource for adjudication or completely ignored, depending on the case and situation. This article attempts to go beyond monotonous and orthodox understanding of posthumous adoption and to reveal the diverse nature of worship and family traditions in Qing-ruled Taiwan. It is hoped that the new understanding of traditions will help us reconsider how to reform the legal system in local contexts.

Keywords：Posthumous Adoption, Ancestor Worship, Qing Taiwan, Qing Code, Tan-Hsin Archives, Private Documents, Diversity, Traditions, (un-)Orthodox, Gap, Role of Law

Abstract：
The excavation and utilization of coal is the driving force behind industrial civilization and industrialization. However, burning coal emits a large amount of black “coal smoke” that is harmful to the human body and the environment. The end of the 18th century to the mid-20th century was the worldwide “smog era”. At that time, Taiwan was under Japanese colonial rule and the large-scale mining of coal in Northern Taiwan provided a new cheap energy source for household cooking in the north as well as industries and transportation throughout the island, causing widespread air pollution from coal burning. At the beginning, people hated only the dirt and inconvenience caused by the soot and smoke, and thus implemented control primarily on chimneys. Then from the mid-1910s, there had been increasing emphasis on the health hazards of coal smoke, which eventually led to a ban on “bituminous coal” (called “namasekitan” before WWII) — a kind of cheap non-carbonized coal containing many impurities. Dadaocheng and Wanhua, where many Taiwanese lived and where large quantities of coal were used, were regarded as the source of coal smoke. In 1923, 1927, and 1932, the Taiwanese gentry in Dadaocheng launched the “Coal Smoke Prevention Campaign”, respectively. They adopted scientific analysis, prohibited bituminous coal using anthracite or mature coal instead, and improved kitchens and stoves. Demanding for health, economic and aesthetic enhancement, the campaign spread to Taipei, Keelung, and Taoyuan from 1935 onwards, until the war brought it to a halt. The air pollution caused by coal burning in Japanese colonial Taiwan was a local reflection of the global coal smoke problem and smoke prevention efforts. While the anti-smoke efforts launched during the Japanese colonial era seemed successful, they were merely relocating the pollution source from the city to the country and turning black smoke into white, which obscured the real issues of coal smoke. Despite far from a complete eradication of coal smoke, the smoke prevention efforts did at least improve the “visible” air pollution.

Keywords：Coal, Industrialization, Air Pollution, Household Cooking, Dadaocheng

Keywords：228 Incident, Fu Chen Project, National Security Bureau, Hoover Institution